part one
Kusa no Kashira reads the sign. It greets visitor's to Aoyama-sensei's workshop - Kusa no Kashiragama - in Onada.
"As a child absorbs the wisdom of its parents, I absorb the wisdom of the earth under my feet."
Those are the words of Sōkei Aoyama, a master potter in Onada, Tajimi and self-described experimental archaeologist. Indeed, it seems like traces of an exciting tradition in Japanese pottery have been unearthed at the old kilns of Onada. Shining brightest in this story is the Shiro Tenmoku, the traditional Japanese white tenmoku chawan (tea bowl).
Three white Japanese tea bowls have been the subject for debate and fascination throughout the discourse on Japanese pottery in the modern age. They once belonged to the great tea master Takeno Jōō (1502 - 1555). Jōō lived during the Sengoku (warring states) period of the 16th century in Japan, a time of war and unrest.
Two of Jōō's bowls would pass through the hands of some of the giants in Japan’s cultural and political history. Among them were Sen no Rikyū, a master among tea masters. There was his student, Oda Nobunaga, the first of the three unifiers of Japan. After him, Rikyū taught Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the second of the three unifiers. Hideyoshi would eventually order Rikyū to commit suicide by seppuku (harakiri).
Drama, intrigue, war, execution. These two white bowls, that have seen so much, are now believed to have been made by potters in Onada. Sokei Aoyama, a local pottery master, has made it his lifework to determine the origin and production method of the bowls.
Those are the words of Sōkei Aoyama, a master potter in Onada, Tajimi and self-described experimental archaeologist. Indeed, it seems like traces of an exciting tradition in Japanese pottery have been unearthed at the old kilns of Onada. Shining brightest in this story is the Shiro Tenmoku, the traditional Japanese white tenmoku chawan (tea bowl).
Three white Japanese tea bowls have been the subject for debate and fascination throughout the discourse on Japanese pottery in the modern age. They once belonged to the great tea master Takeno Jōō (1502 - 1555). Jōō lived during the Sengoku (warring states) period of the 16th century in Japan, a time of war and unrest.
Two of Jōō's bowls would pass through the hands of some of the giants in Japan’s cultural and political history. Among them were Sen no Rikyū, a master among tea masters. There was his student, Oda Nobunaga, the first of the three unifiers of Japan. After him, Rikyū taught Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the second of the three unifiers. Hideyoshi would eventually order Rikyū to commit suicide by seppuku (harakiri).
Drama, intrigue, war, execution. These two white bowls, that have seen so much, are now believed to have been made by potters in Onada. Sokei Aoyama, a local pottery master, has made it his lifework to determine the origin and production method of the bowls.
Aoyama-sensei serves his guest tea in Shiro Tenmoku bowls.
In spite of his greying hair, Aoyama-sensei radiates an air of vitality and humour. When he starts to speak about Shiro Tenmoku it’s hard not to be smitten by his enthusiasm. We spent many hot summer afternoons in his workshop listening to his story, drinking green tea by the fan. In the master potter’s tale, the old kilns of Onada come to life once more, whispering from the beautiful white tea bowls they produced. Aoyama-sensei served our tea in reproductions from his kiln. Had I only known their value my handling of the items would have been a rather nerve-wracking affair. Out of a hundred bowls fired, only a couple meets the standards of a true Shiro Tenmoku. This explains the discovery of many discarded bowls in the grounds at the old kilns in Onada. In recent years, the history of Japanese pottery has undergone a review as a result of the findings.
Onada is located in Tajimi city, Gifu, Japan. It is part of the historic Mino region, famous for Mino ware such as Shino and Oribe. Note: Google incorrectly names Hakusan Shrine "Shirayama Shrine".
It must have been arduous work for pottery workers back in the 1500s, firing their wares for days. Hot summer days like this must have taken their toll. They turned the rare, white clay in Onada into tea bowls for the upper class. Aristocrats, priests and soldiers had long enjoyed tea drinking. A growing number of wealthy tea aficionados in the merchant class took up the tradition. Even commoners drank tea. But the fine bowls that are the subject here were only accessible to the elite. It was they the Onada kilns were serving.
an old misconception
In the Tokyo National Museum here is a wonderful, vivid picture of every day's life (ja: Tsuginami Fūzoku 月次風俗図]) (01) in the Muromachi period (approximately 1336 to 1573). It is one of the items in "The Kencha Tea Ceremony Picture Collection" (ja: 献茶の湯絵画資料修正) (02) published by Heibonsha. In the picture, we see a busy city scene, full of people. They all seem to be alive even today. Two young boys are fighting, pulling each others hair. A man in a pointed hat, sword dangling from his side, is running towards them. Is it a guard, trying to stop them? A pretty lady in a fine dress carries a small drum. She is smiling at someone. A peddler of teas comes walking down the street, his gear dangling from both ends of a yoke across his shoulder. The man is selling herbal extracts (senjimono-uri ja:煎じ物売).
In busy places like this, here and there in front of the gates to a shrine or temple, you would also find an "open air tea house”. They were one-man shops, serving tea out in the open. In the Muromachi period the distribution of goods was improving. As a result, tea drinking become popular among the common people. Ippuku Issen tea sellers start to appear at the gates of Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. They traded to visitors of shrines like the Kitane Tenmangu, Kamo Ryosha, and the Gionsha. Buddhist temples like the Kiyomizudera and Mibudera were other good locations for business. The shops were in other words trading to a wide spectrum of religious believers. People drank tea not only to quench their thirst or for relaxation, but also for the medical and cleansing effects the drink was believed to have. The tea house also served as a symbolic portal between everyday’s life and the sacred place beyond the gate. (03).
Ippuku Issen (一服一銭) monk serving matcha at an open tea house. Illustration from Shichiju-ichiban shokunin utaawase (ja:七十一番職人歌合) Muromachi period).
We find such an open tea house in an illustration from a Muromachi period picture painted at the "71 Artisans Poetry Contest" (04). A monk is preparing a bowl of matcha in a white bowl. It looks remarkably similar to a Shiro Tenmoku in shape and colour. So does the design of the stand (tenmokudai), which he holds in his left hand, bowl placed on top. This trade was called Ippuku Issen (一服一銭) because one portion of tea (ippuku) was priced at one sen. Despite the similarities, it is very unlikely that what he is holding in his hand is a Shiro Tenmoku.
“This is most likely a replica based on an imported Chinese original (kensan),” Aoyama-sensei says after scrutinizing the picture. “Chinese bowls were scarce and much sought after. The low volume import was not enough to meet demand. Domestic production had to fill the gap. The bowl the monk is holding could be one produced in Seto [a pottery production region neighbouring Mino]. I am not saying it was of poor quality. After all, to copy something well, you have to have skill.”
Shiro Tenmoku reproduction by Sokei Aoyama
It is quite notable that many of the chawan listed as National Treasures by the Japanese government were Chinese made. Most of those Chinese items are Tenmoku tea bowls. Chinese technology was ancient and highly sophisticated. Since olden times, China has had an enormous influence on Japanese pottery culture. According to Aoyama-sensei, there are only two cases where one can say the origin of a form was Japanese. One is Setoguro, and the other Shiro Tenmoku. It can be argued that the medieval Japanese never were able to catch up with the potters on the Asian mainland. That they even fell behind over time, isolated on their island. The case can also be made, on the other hand, that they set out on their own path, away from perfect symmetry and towards something very different. We will return to this later.
The thesis for this article is that Onada is the origin of the Shiro Tenmoku. If that is true, what inspired the Onada potters in the first place? Aoyama-sensei has a private theory. “Buddhist temples in Japan possessed many tea utensils since there was a connection between the tea ceremony and Zen. I believe the tradition arrived at Onada by way of monks travelling between temples. As you know we have a large and very important Zen temple in Tajimi, the Eihoji. Temples are part of a nationwide network. Eihoji is connected to the Rinsenji (05) in Kyoto, so those Kyoto monks may have brought the Tea Ceremony and sophisticated tea utensils here. Somewhere in the process of producing replica Chinese Tenmoku a native form was born. I believe the Shiro Tenmoku must have come into existence this way, and that it happened in Onada.”
Shiro Tenmoku teacups were until recent years believed to be early forms of the later Momoyama era Shino ware. Now we have reason to believe differently.
Eihoji in winter. The spacious Zen garden is designed by Muso Kokushi (ja : 夢窓国師), who also created a number of Kyoto temples.
Shiro Tenmoku tea bowls were until recent years believed to be a form of Muromachi period Shino ware. Shino blossomed in the following Momoyama era (1573 to 1603). In the 1930s, Tajimi born Toyozō Arakawa (1894 - 1985) (06), a famous potter in the Shino ware tradition, set out on a search for the origin of the Momoyama era style of Shino pottery. He discovered that Shino had its roots in the Gifu Prefecture city of Kani, close to Tajimi. He set out to recreate Shino, which is characterised by its thick white feldspar glazes. Arakawa re-engineered forgotten techniques to create this beautiful pottery. Today, Shino is widespread in pottery studios both in Japan and abroad. Arakawa, a giant among pottery experts in Japan, has left his mark in the story of Mino ware. Shino had become a crown jewel in the historic Mino Mino region pottery tradition, or Minoyaki.
Shino-ware was until recently regarded as the only form of white pottery that originated in Japan. Arakawa concluded in 1989 that two of the old Shiro Tenmoku that had been discovered so far were Shino:
Shino-ware was until recently regarded as the only form of white pottery that originated in Japan. Arakawa concluded in 1989 that two of the old Shiro Tenmoku that had been discovered so far were Shino:
“Without a doubt, Shino ware is the style of pottery most representative of Japan. The discovery of white, Feldspar [ ja: chōseki長石] glazed wares has a great significance for how we view the history of pottery in Japan.” (07)
Two extremely rare Japanese Shiro Tenmoku bowls are the focus of our interest here. According to tradition they were two of three Shiro Tenmoku owned by the famous tea master Takeno Joo (1502-1555). Records show one was later in possession by the daimyo house of Owari Tokugawa, and the other by the daimyo house of Kaga Maeda. These two are the oldest and most famous pieces of their kind. Arakawa argued that they are centrepieces in the history of Shino ware.
Shiro Tenmoku is the oldest form of Shino ware. The legendary two bowls said to have once been in Jōō’s possession have the appearance of Kiseto ware. I have no doubt they are Shino. They are feldspar glazed Shino, fired 'naked' [without protective fire clay] at very high temperature. These two bowls are the oldest [of their kind] in existence today. Some speculate they were made at the Jourinji kiln or the Gotomaki kiln [both in Toki, Gifu Prefecture]. (08)
If they were indeed Shino they would be the start of the form of pottery Arakawa regarded to be most representative of Japanese culture. He seems to be quite certain:
Nobody can be sure if these two bowls were produced in Seto or Mino. What can be said is that they are not Kiseto ware, because they are feldspar glazed. Their glazing does contain some ash, but the Tokugawa one in particular show signs of having been fired unprotected by fire clay (saya) (09). [...] It must have been a small kiln with little loading capacity, so the bowl had to be placed near the fire. Ash containing iron fell on it. This resulted in a green vidro-glaze (10), and an appearance quite similar to Kiseto ware. This is common when Shino is fired at too high temperature. (11)
Aoyama-sensei was unconvinced. “Arakawa-sensei thought the bowls looked a bit odd, but that they must have been fired too long, too close to the fire, and sprinkled by ash, explaining the ash content in the glazing,” he says. But perhaps this was ash glazed pottery after all? Shino ware glazing is, as Arakawa notes, feldspar based. According to Aoyama, feldspar is extremely scarce in the earth in Onada. Far to scarce to produce glazing in sufficient quantities. If Feldspar was not readily available, why would the potters use it?
If Arakawa was correct and these white bowls were indeed Shino, it would mean that they heralded a tradition of the Azuchi–Momoyama period. Regarded as a spectacular time in the cultural history of Japan, it spans the years from 1573 to 1603. Many view this era as a golden age of Japanese culture and art. But was Shiro Tenmoku pottery a forerunner? In this article we present a different view. Shiro Tenmoku is highlighted as a form of pottery in its own right, in the earlier Muromachi period. Aoyama-sensei's home village Onada plays a central role as the production centre of this pottery.
Arakawa notes other oddities about the two ancient Shiro Tenmoku, but again finds an explanation:
If Arakawa was correct and these white bowls were indeed Shino, it would mean that they heralded a tradition of the Azuchi–Momoyama period. Regarded as a spectacular time in the cultural history of Japan, it spans the years from 1573 to 1603. Many view this era as a golden age of Japanese culture and art. But was Shiro Tenmoku pottery a forerunner? In this article we present a different view. Shiro Tenmoku is highlighted as a form of pottery in its own right, in the earlier Muromachi period. Aoyama-sensei's home village Onada plays a central role as the production centre of this pottery.
Arakawa notes other oddities about the two ancient Shiro Tenmoku, but again finds an explanation:
[...]The objects are dotted with tiny, black spots. This is because of the high temperature firing, where sand-like dust particles swirled around inside the kiln, falling onto the cups, sticking to their surface. (12)
As we shall see in part two, there is another, radically different explanation for the little black dots.
Today, only three classic Shiro Tenmoku have survived to our times (some add a fourth owned by the Fujita Art Museum). They are of Japanese origin, and said to once have been in the possession of tea master Takeno Joo. One of the three is owned by the Tokugawa Art Museum in Nagoya. The bowl once owned by the daimyo house of Kaga Maeda is now in private ownership. The third bowl is owned by Kosetsu Museum of Art in Kobe. Lastly, there is a bowl of Korean origin, now stored by the Tokugawa Art Museum.
The bowls embody the heart and spirit of rustic simplicity in tea that Japan has become famous for - the wabicha (wabi tea ceremony). Wabi-sabi has to do with the acceptance of transience and imperfection. Everything in this world wears down and changes, rusts, becomes dirty and imperfect. To see a special kind of beauty in this change is Sabi. To accept the rust and dirt, and to enjoy it, is Wabi.
Taking a close look, you will see that the shapes of the Shiro Tenmoku are not perfect, but crooked. This contrasts with Chinese tradition, once viewed as the aesthetic ideal by the tea drinking upper class in Japan. The Chinese valued symmetry, in Japan, crooked lines became the ideal. What about the Korean Shiro Tenmoku, then? “Well, first of all, Shiro Tenmoku was not well defined until quite recently,” Aoyama-sensei explains. “The colour was the most important defining factor. If we take the Korean Shiro Tenmoku as an example, they are quite different in other respects. First of all, the shape of Korean and Japanese Shiro Tenmoku are different.” He shows a photograph of the Korean bowl and points out the continuous curve from base to rim.
The shape of a Korean Shiro Tenmoku typically flare upward as a continuous curve from base to rim.
The classical Japanese Shiro Tenmoku has a distinctive shape that flares upward from the base and then narrows almost to a vertical at the rim.
The classical Japanese Shiro Tenmoku has a distinctive shape that flares upward from the base and then narrows almost to a vertical at the rim.
“There are other important differences as well,” Aoyama-sensei continues. “The Korean Shiro Tenmoku discovered so far are white, but made from red clay covered by a white “make-up” (keshō). The keshō is covered by glazing. In Japan, white clay was used. No keshō was necessary to achieve a white finish.”
The origins of Shiro tenmoku
For copyright reasons we can't display the museum owned Shiro Tenmoku cups. Below is a link to the cup once owned by lord Owari Tokugawa, discussed in this article.
Height: 66mm
Width of mouth: 121mm
Width of foot: 45mm
Description: The substrate is a rough soil with a pale eggshell color, exposed below the waist. Thick, semipermeable white glaze. There is rough intrusion throughout. There is "stickiness" where the glaze flowed down and gathered at two places on the ouside.
Height: 66mm
Width of mouth: 121mm
Width of foot: 45mm
Description: The substrate is a rough soil with a pale eggshell color, exposed below the waist. Thick, semipermeable white glaze. There is rough intrusion throughout. There is "stickiness" where the glaze flowed down and gathered at two places on the ouside.
Reproduction of Shiro Tenmoku by Sokei Ayoyama.
When and where was this white pottery invented? Takeno Jōō is according to tradition the first owner of the above mentioned three Japanese Shiro Tenmoku (13). He lived in a transitional period of Japan’s cultural history when practitioners of the tea ceremony shifted from Chinese to Korean, and then Japanese objects and the arts of wabicha begin to emerge. A wealthy merchant in Sakai with access to exclusive tea utensils, Takeno Jōō became a strong proponent for wabicha. Some believe his white bowls must have been of Chinese origin, possibly a haikatsugi tenmoku, which have a two-layered glaze. Others hold that it must have been Japanese. Aoyama-sensei is one of them.
“There are many kinds of tenmoku in China, but white varieties are scarce,” he explains. “Many today believe the bowls supposedly owned by Takeno Jōō were white tenmoku produced in Japan. Supporters of this theory include the Tokugawa Art Museum and Fujita Art Museum, as well as the Kosetsu Art Museum in Kobe.”
Aoyama-sensei has made it his lifework not only to prove that Shiro Tenmoku is Japanese, but that it was a form of pottery unrelated to Shino. Findings made in excavations at Onada seemed to tell a new story. Based on these discoveries he has spent decades recreating Shiro Tenmoku from local clay, employing the techniques of those times. The similarities with the three Japanese pieces once owned by Takeno Joo were striking.
“There are many kinds of tenmoku in China, but white varieties are scarce,” he explains. “Many today believe the bowls supposedly owned by Takeno Jōō were white tenmoku produced in Japan. Supporters of this theory include the Tokugawa Art Museum and Fujita Art Museum, as well as the Kosetsu Art Museum in Kobe.”
Aoyama-sensei has made it his lifework not only to prove that Shiro Tenmoku is Japanese, but that it was a form of pottery unrelated to Shino. Findings made in excavations at Onada seemed to tell a new story. Based on these discoveries he has spent decades recreating Shiro Tenmoku from local clay, employing the techniques of those times. The similarities with the three Japanese pieces once owned by Takeno Joo were striking.
Tea house with a view of Mt. Fuji. Tea and tea utensils - such as tea bowls - have a long history in Japanese culture.
The discovery in Onada
The first tenmoku tea bowls used in Japan were imports from China - the so-called karamono. Native production in Japan began in the 13th century in Seto, a neighboring region to Mino. In Tajimi, a Mino city, the history of pottery goes back to the 7th century. Several of the Tajimi kilns were located in Onada, taking advantage of its rare clay resources. "In a time when there was no efficient transportation infrastructure in place, proximity to good clay was the primary concern when establishing a kiln," Aoyama-sensei explains. By the 15th-century tenmoku production had begun in Mino. The first tenmoku made here were produced in koseto-type kilns
Two types of glazings were used in Mino to produce white pottery. One containing mostly feldspar (choseki gusuri) for the white Shino ware. The other type was based on ash (haigusuri) which also resulted in white bowls. Excavations have revealed that the Oroshi Nishiyama kiln and other kilns in the Mino region produced these types of pottery. By the 16th-century tenmoku production had commenced in Onada. The Onada Kamashita and Onada Hakusan kilns used both iron-based glazing and ash glazing. The latter resulted in the white tea bowls we shall call Shiro Tenmoku (white tenmoku) in this article.
Two types of glazings were used in Mino to produce white pottery. One containing mostly feldspar (choseki gusuri) for the white Shino ware. The other type was based on ash (haigusuri) which also resulted in white bowls. Excavations have revealed that the Oroshi Nishiyama kiln and other kilns in the Mino region produced these types of pottery. By the 16th-century tenmoku production had commenced in Onada. The Onada Kamashita and Onada Hakusan kilns used both iron-based glazing and ash glazing. The latter resulted in the white tea bowls we shall call Shiro Tenmoku (white tenmoku) in this article.
As mentioned above, Toyozō Arakawa, a widely respected authority on Shino ware, concluded that Shiro Tenmoku is Shino. This is the view commonly reported by Western commentators today. There had been early voices, however, holding that this was not the case. Shōichi Narasaki (14) commented in 1976 on the technological progress in the Mino region. New developments were taking place in the latter part of the Muromachi period. He notes that while traditional ash based and iron based (tetsuyū) glazing dominated, new methods resulted in white pottery. But this pottery, in his view, was different from Shino.
Narasaki writes that because of the high temperature firing with the new Ōgama kilns, ash glaze bleeding (ja: 灰釉の流れ) had become a problem. To prevent this, potters began to mix siliceous stone (ja: keiseki 珪石) into the ash glaze. The heat induced a separation of Feldspar from ash in the glazing.
"This," he explains, "often resulted in white glazing. The two Shiro Tenmoku chawan once owned by Takeno Joo and later by the Owari Tokugawa and Kaga Maeda houses are of this variety. They are not Shino." (15)
Narasaki in other words holds that the glazing is key to distinguishing Shiro Tenmoku from Shino ware. As we shall see in the second installment of this article, the earth from which the pottery is made may be even more important.
Narasaki writes that because of the high temperature firing with the new Ōgama kilns, ash glaze bleeding (ja: 灰釉の流れ) had become a problem. To prevent this, potters began to mix siliceous stone (ja: keiseki 珪石) into the ash glaze. The heat induced a separation of Feldspar from ash in the glazing.
"This," he explains, "often resulted in white glazing. The two Shiro Tenmoku chawan once owned by Takeno Joo and later by the Owari Tokugawa and Kaga Maeda houses are of this variety. They are not Shino." (15)
Narasaki in other words holds that the glazing is key to distinguishing Shiro Tenmoku from Shino ware. As we shall see in the second installment of this article, the earth from which the pottery is made may be even more important.
In 1994 there was an urgent excavation in Onada because road construction works threatened to destroy areas where the ancient kilns had stood. Large numbers of pieces of Shiro Tenmoku were discovered at the Onada Kamashita kiln No. 6. This set off speculation that there was a connection to the two famous Japanese Shiro Tenmoku bowls. Could it be that they were produced in Onada?
Two camps were disputing this matter. One held that the ancient Shiro Tenmoku had been produced with feldspar based glazing. The opposing camp maintained that the glazing was instead ash-based. Was it possible to trace the origins of the museum owned bowls by studying the glazings? Was there a reliable method in the first place? Aoyama-sensei was convinced that the bowls must be of Onada origin. He began re-engineering the production method of the Shiro Tenmoku. To prove his case, he collaborated with scholars to produce both practical and scientific evidence.
Read about Aoyama-sensei's sensational research and the new view of Shiro Tenmoku and Shino ware in Japan.
For more background, see this older story in which Aoyama-sensei discusses the developments that led to Shino and Oribe ware.
Notes
01 Picture owned by the Tokyo National Museum, "Tsuginami Fūzoku, Hakkyku Isseki no Uchi" (ja: 月次風俗 8曲1隻の内), published in "The Kencha Tea Ceremony Picture Collection" (ja: 献茶の湯絵画資料修正), Heibonsha, 1992.
02 "The Kencha Tea Ceremony Picture Collection" (ja:献茶の湯絵画資料修正), Heibonsha, 1992. Kencha (献茶) is a tea ceremony held in front of a Shinto shrine, while Kūcha (供茶) is the name for a ceremony in front of a Buddhist temple.
03 Ibid, quoted on web site published by the Tea House Bokushinan (ja: 卜深庵木津家) at http://bokushinan.com/research/5_ippukuissen.html
04 The Shichiju-ichiban shokunin utaawase (ja:七十一番職人歌合), or "71 Artisans Poetry Contests" were medieval art contests were artisans were the subjects, such as pictures of artisans in conversation or hawking their wares.
05 Rinsenji (ja: 臨川寺)is a temple in Ukyoku ward, Kyoto. It belongs to the Rinzaishū (ja: 臨済宗) school, one of the three sects of Zen in Japan.
06 Toyozo Arakawa (荒川 豊蔵 Arakawa Toyozō, March 21, 1894 - August 11, 1985). Japanese ceramic potter who discovered that Shino and Oribe glazed work of the Momoyama and early Edo period in Japan had been manufactured in Mino rather than in the Seto area. Arakawa was given the title "Living National Treasure" in 1955.
07 “Shino, Kiseto, Setoguro” (ja: 志野・黄瀬戸・瀬戸黒), Heibonsha, book 11 of 28 in the series “Nihon Tougei Taikei” (ja: 日本陶磁大系), 1989, Toyozō Arakawa, Junichi Takeuchi, p. 89 単行本 – 1989/7/1 荒川 豊蔵 (著), 竹内 順一 (著)
08 Ibid, p. 89
09 Saya are vessels made from highly heat resistant fire clay. By using saya it is possible to fire more items at a time. It is also used to protect the pottery from exessive firing. 焼成時に窯内に器物をできるだけ多く、また保護する目的で窯積みに用いる耐火粘土製の容器
10 Vidro-glaze (portuguese for “glass”: vidro) is a glazing that occur naturally when ash from the burning wood falls onto the pottery. ビードロ釉があります。これは燃料である薪の灰が降りかかった自然の釉薬（自然釉）とされます。ビードロ（vidro:ポルトガル語）とはガラスの事をいい「硝子」の字が当てられます。
11 “Shino, Kiseto, Setoguro” (ja: 志野・黄瀬戸・瀬戸黒), Heibonsha, book 11 of 28 in the series “Nihon Tougei Taikei” (ja: 日本陶磁大系), 1989, Toyozō Arakawa, Junichi Takeuchi, p. ? 単行本 – 1989/7/1 荒川 豊蔵 (著), 竹内 順一 (著)
12 Ibid, p. 91
13 The Tokugawa Shiro Tenmoku is presented on page 28 in the companion book to the 1992 exhibition “Cha no Yu Meiwan” (ja: 茶の湯名碗), ("Master Tea Bowls - The Beauty of Pottery in the Momoyama Period"). “This item,” writes the authors, “was according to tradition once in the possession of Takeno Joo.”
14 Shōichi Narasaki (ja: 楢崎, 彰一) (1925-2010), held positions at at the Department of Archaeology, Nagoya University and later as Director, Aichi Prefecture Ceramics Museum, Seto City.
15 “The Development of Ancient Mino ware” (ja: Mino no Nagare, 美濃古陶の流れ), p9, published in the anthology “Ancient Mino ware” (ja: Mino no kotō, 美濃の古陶), Kyōto-shi : Kōrinsha Shuppan, 1976.
02 "The Kencha Tea Ceremony Picture Collection" (ja:献茶の湯絵画資料修正), Heibonsha, 1992. Kencha (献茶) is a tea ceremony held in front of a Shinto shrine, while Kūcha (供茶) is the name for a ceremony in front of a Buddhist temple.
03 Ibid, quoted on web site published by the Tea House Bokushinan (ja: 卜深庵木津家) at http://bokushinan.com/research/5_ippukuissen.html
04 The Shichiju-ichiban shokunin utaawase (ja:七十一番職人歌合), or "71 Artisans Poetry Contests" were medieval art contests were artisans were the subjects, such as pictures of artisans in conversation or hawking their wares.
05 Rinsenji (ja: 臨川寺)is a temple in Ukyoku ward, Kyoto. It belongs to the Rinzaishū (ja: 臨済宗) school, one of the three sects of Zen in Japan.
06 Toyozo Arakawa (荒川 豊蔵 Arakawa Toyozō, March 21, 1894 - August 11, 1985). Japanese ceramic potter who discovered that Shino and Oribe glazed work of the Momoyama and early Edo period in Japan had been manufactured in Mino rather than in the Seto area. Arakawa was given the title "Living National Treasure" in 1955.
07 “Shino, Kiseto, Setoguro” (ja: 志野・黄瀬戸・瀬戸黒), Heibonsha, book 11 of 28 in the series “Nihon Tougei Taikei” (ja: 日本陶磁大系), 1989, Toyozō Arakawa, Junichi Takeuchi, p. 89 単行本 – 1989/7/1 荒川 豊蔵 (著), 竹内 順一 (著)
08 Ibid, p. 89
09 Saya are vessels made from highly heat resistant fire clay. By using saya it is possible to fire more items at a time. It is also used to protect the pottery from exessive firing. 焼成時に窯内に器物をできるだけ多く、また保護する目的で窯積みに用いる耐火粘土製の容器
10 Vidro-glaze (portuguese for “glass”: vidro) is a glazing that occur naturally when ash from the burning wood falls onto the pottery. ビードロ釉があります。これは燃料である薪の灰が降りかかった自然の釉薬（自然釉）とされます。ビードロ（vidro:ポルトガル語）とはガラスの事をいい「硝子」の字が当てられます。
11 “Shino, Kiseto, Setoguro” (ja: 志野・黄瀬戸・瀬戸黒), Heibonsha, book 11 of 28 in the series “Nihon Tougei Taikei” (ja: 日本陶磁大系), 1989, Toyozō Arakawa, Junichi Takeuchi, p. ? 単行本 – 1989/7/1 荒川 豊蔵 (著), 竹内 順一 (著)
12 Ibid, p. 91
13 The Tokugawa Shiro Tenmoku is presented on page 28 in the companion book to the 1992 exhibition “Cha no Yu Meiwan” (ja: 茶の湯名碗), ("Master Tea Bowls - The Beauty of Pottery in the Momoyama Period"). “This item,” writes the authors, “was according to tradition once in the possession of Takeno Joo.”
14 Shōichi Narasaki (ja: 楢崎, 彰一) (1925-2010), held positions at at the Department of Archaeology, Nagoya University and later as Director, Aichi Prefecture Ceramics Museum, Seto City.
15 “The Development of Ancient Mino ware” (ja: Mino no Nagare, 美濃古陶の流れ), p9, published in the anthology “Ancient Mino ware” (ja: Mino no kotō, 美濃の古陶), Kyōto-shi : Kōrinsha Shuppan, 1976.
